Chapter 2 :Ethical Traditions

This theory or approach to ethics is based on the assumptions that the world is male oriented, devised by men and dominated on a male emphasis on systems of inflexible rules. The goal of feminist ethics is to create a plan that will hopefully end the social and political oppression of women. It is believed that the female perspective of the world can be shaped into a value theory.

Omonia Vinieris (QCC, 2002) on the  Feminist Theory of Care

            It has been conventionally thought by traditional thinkers of ethics that the moral development of females is slow-paced and secondary to that of males.   Standard ethical attitudes entail hostile, aggressive, and masculine principles of authority, supremacy, and social order.  Feminist opponents consider the latter to incite the debasement of women’s moral capabilities and to demoralize the conception of morality altogether.  The “ethics of justice” is often the terminology used to denote moral duty based on the masculine   traits of reason and aloofness.  Feminists strive for vindication by formulating a theory entitled the “ethics of care” to counter its antithetical parallel, the manly principle, “ethics of justice”.

            Ethics of care focus on the morality and integrity of women which primarily center on interpersonal relationships.  Feminine values such as gentleness, sympathy, and genuine caring are devalued and deemed irrelevant to the public world where self-rule and power thrive.  Carol Gilligan, a feminist theorist and psychologist, presumes that the morality of women is merely different from that concerning men’s and that it is not at all inferior as her male counterparts claim it to be.   She profoundly opposes the theories of moral development devised her colleague, Kohlberg, who only confined his study to males.  His study neglects a woman’s ability to possess self-legislated ethical dogma.

Gilligan, in attempt to refute Kohlberg’s philosophy, composes a scale to illustrate the different stages of a woman’s moral development.  In the first stage, the female is only concerned with herself as she is basically helpless and vulnerable and finds comfort in her seclusion.  She steers clear of any type of relation with others.  In the second stage of moral development, she acquires an awareness of others around her and clings on to various personal contacts that she develops.  She feels a sense of responsibility and devotion to care for them.  She essentially cares for and finds interest in the people she relates with.  She is naturally able to sacrifice herself for these people out of her innate goodness.  Finally in the third stage, she masters equilibrium between the first two stages.  She exhibits self concern for herself and others.  In order to essentially care for others, she must care for herself first, and perhaps the reciprocation of care between her and different people is an indication that she cares for herself.  This universal factor of ethical principle verifies a woman’s ability to control the moral principles concerning her, as it also exemplifies the potency she holds in concurrently providing for others.  

Gilligan further goes on to say that an ethics of care is an essential component of ideal moral thought.  Children must be taught to “value their hearts over their heads” (Gilligan) rather than disregard their natural emotions in fear of resorting to subjection which defies the traditional male-oriented “ethics of justice”.  In sum, women and children may exhibit more moral depth than men (Gilligan).

If women are to tolerate the impersonal and “rational” principles anchored in the “ethics of justice” they might as well become merciless, heartless brutes.  However, women are humane and acknowledge the fact that genuine impartiality requires emotive input in ethical reasoning and assessment.  In order to judge morally, we must identify emotionally with the individual to make sense of his or her motives that triggered their actions.  Yet, masculine or “traditional” ethical principles eschew the idea of involving emotion in moral judgment.  Sarah Hoagland comments that traditional ethics undermine rather than promote individual moral ability and agency because the direction of traditional ethics is impersonal and merely focuses on control and social organization.  Thus it does not uphold individual integrity as social organization is acquired through oppressive and authoritative means. 

Unfortunately, feminists realize that in their own quest to incorporate their “ethics of care” principle into the canons of society, society is much too fixated on the masculine tenets of competition and self-interest.  An environment based on interfamilial relations and mutual communication is one where an “ethics of care” ideology will be embraced by its people.  Human emotional responses are now a low key supplement to traditionalist ethical principles, as sensitivity and kindness were never equated with human goodness.  Yet, it still seems that rationale and intellect overpower these feminine aspects in a male-dominated world.    

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Sharon Higgins (SCCC, 2005) on FEMINIST ETHICS

Feminist ethics and care ethics are similar in that both reject abstract rules or principles that judge the morality of certain actions. The feminist ethical focus is on social arrangements and practices instead. One goal of feminist ethics is to reduce or eliminate women being subordinate to men and for gender equality. This is approached by feminist ethics by critiquing practices and institutions that keep women subjected to men and to make society aware of how it is being done. Feminists support efforts to expose the domination of one group by another and view ethics as a continuous effort to help eliminate social inequality. Social equality is the main goal of feminist ethics and there are concerns about social equality occurring in healthcare because women still dominate in positions of nurses, while men dominate in positions as physicians, which leaves women as nurses subordinates on men.

Feminists have questioned the value of healthcare because if food and shelter were equally distributed to everyone, that would help eliminate the need for expensive health care because more people would be kept healthy.

There is controversy between feminists with assisted reproduction. Some feminists feel that the technology that permits otherwise infertile women to have children empowers them while other feminists argue that reproductive technology causes male dominance and can force women to have children.

There is not a lot of consistency with feminist ethics, there are many different opinions and claims from different feminists. This has caused feminist ethics to be criticized for not being a coherent ethical theory like traditional ethical theories. The relevance of feminist ethics is questioned with traditional ethical theories because some argue that social equality is irrelevant when deciding to terminate life support.   Feminist ethics is about equality of women and to resolve conflicts that arise and to learn about the many different factors that influence the varied views of different feminists.

Kathy Krisman (SCCC, 2005) on CARE ETHICS

Care ethics is a strand of feminist care ethics. Like feminist ethics the basis for ethics rejects the idea of abstract principles. More accurately it is a conglomerate of beliefs of how values should be seen in people’s character and how they act. Carol Gilligan was a psychologist whose research on morals development contributed to the philosophical ideas of care ethics. She researched the idea that women have a different style of moral reasoning then men have. Women tend to focus on details and personal relationships. Away to resolve conflict for woman would be to avoid harming anyone and to keep everyone in the situation as happy as possible. Men on the other hand tend to analyze the situation and then use abstract rules to guide them in finding a conclusion. Care ethics share general ideas and a point of view as feminist care ethics, but does not concern themselves with feminism as much.

The main idea of care ethics is values not principles. Care ethics says it is not appropriate to think with rules of principles where a type of relationship is concerned. For example a mother should not use a principle to decide to help her child or a friend help another friend. Certain relationships likes these do not need a rule or principle to tell the person what the right decision is. Care ethics understand that situations are complex. The point to care ethics is to resolve the problem with everyone’s concerns in mind. They do not care who is wrong or being treated unfairly. Their main concern is to instill values such as the importance to personal relationships, the respect of individuals and the respect for responsibility. Care ethics sees there as being an obligation to teach all in our society to respond correctly to moral situations with the values above in mind.

When faced with medical issues, care ethics believes everyone should know everyone’s views who are involved in the conflict. Each side should present their concerns and the possibilities of care. Once all the information is provided it may be easier to come to a decision. The decision may be one that they arrive to together completely different from the original two conflicting decisions. Although the outcome is not for certain an educated, informed decision is arrived at. Each person in the situation might get a greater understanding of why the other has the beliefs they have. Care ethics is based on the traditional beliefs that traits like compassion, sympathy, kindness and willingness to take responsibility should be present in human character. Such things like medicine, nursing, and other simpler areas should have these values. We should rely on values of care and not on a principle or a rule to resolve our conflicts.

Although care ethics sounds like a good way to resolve conflict it too has its problems. It has been found that Gillian’s’ research on woman and men’s reasoning is a bit out dated. It has been found though that Gillian’s claims are not detrimental to care ethics. The importance of values is enough to show how care ethics can be used in life situations. Some feel that the basis of care ethics is what traditional philosophical ethics is about. Disclaiming any evidence that care ethics even exists. The biggest reason care ethics is criticized is because there is no obvious way to resolve conflicts. There may not be enough time in a situation to debate it and in the end no real decision can be concluded. The person having to make the decision may have their own reasons for why they choose the decision they do. Many will find the decision based on the care ethics to still be unfair.

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PROBLEMS WITH THIS THEORY

1. Some philosophers argue that the ethic of care is based on traditional women's values in a quest for new virtues.

2. Beings other than women may not agree because humans often only understand what they can relate to.

3. Gender free morality may be impossible, according to Nel Noddings. Traditional philosophers believed that women were inferior to men and female goddesses were involved in silence, obedience and service. These female roles can be shaped into an ethnic of care according to many women philosophers.

4. It is politically imprudent to associate women with the value of care. 

5. The theory ultimately disempowers women.

6. A  person cannot truly care for someone if she is economically, socially, and/or psychologically coerced to do so.

7. Criticizes the inconsistency of modernism but hold inconsistent norms themselves.

8. Stresses the irrational.

9. Feminists contradict themselves by relinquishing truth claims in their own writings.

10.Calls for behavior that is tailored to each individual situation. If this is the case, then there is no true theory of ethical behavior because you are changing your view of what is acceptable and what is not to suit your needs at the time. 

11.Feminist theories do not allow for the natural tendencies of men. They do to men exactly what they claim was wrongly done to women for centuries.

12. Cared based approach clouds the basic moral code. Emotions and feelings make it easy to break moral codes.

FEMINISM AND POST MODERNISM            http://www.cddc.vt.edu/feminism/pom.html

Post Modernism and its Critics          http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/436/pomo.htm

These are three of many popular theories concerning the GOOD which hold for no single universal principle of the GOOD.  Instead they relate the determination of such a principle to be an exercise in POWER or self service which is put under a disguise of being a rational exercise of an unbiased mind.  What they have in common is a relativism.  The need for societies to have a moral foundation are not being served well by what are at their base appeals to power as the only basis for the resolution of conflict.  For these theories, morality collapses into self serving exercises. 

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Feminist ethics is a branch of ethical theory and philosophy that explores how gender and issues related to gender influence ethical thought, moral principles, and moral practices. It emerged as a response to traditional ethics, which often neglected or marginalized the experiences, perspectives, and interests of women and other marginalized groups. Feminist ethics seeks to address these gaps and promote a more inclusive and equitable approach to ethical inquiry.

Key principles and themes of feminist ethics include:

1.      Intersectionality: Feminist ethics recognizes that gender is just one aspect of a person's identity and experience. It emphasizes the importance of considering how intersecting factors such as race, class, sexuality, and disability can shape one's ethical perspectives and moral experiences.

2.      Relational Ethics: Feminist ethics often emphasizes the importance of relationships and interconnectedness in ethical decision-making. It highlights the significance of caring, empathy, and cooperation in moral reasoning and ethical behavior.

3.      Critique of androcentrism: Feminist ethicists critique the androcentric (male-centered) bias in traditional ethics and argue for a more balanced and inclusive perspective that takes into account the experiences and values of women.

4.      Ethics of Care: One prominent strand of feminist ethics is the ethics of care, developed by scholars like Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings. This approach emphasizes the moral significance of caring for others and prioritizes values such as compassion, empathy, and attentiveness in ethical decision-making.

5.      Critique of objectivity: Feminist ethicists question the idea of moral objectivity and argue that ethical perspectives are influenced by one's social and cultural context. They advocate for a more situated and contextual understanding of ethics.

6.      Advocacy for gender equity: Feminist ethics often promotes gender equity and advocates for social and political changes to address gender-based injustices, discrimination, and inequality.

7.      Voices and experiences of marginalized groups: Feminist ethics encourages the inclusion of the voices and experiences of marginalized groups, not only women but also LGBTQ+ individuals, people of color, and others who have historically been excluded from ethical discourse.

Feminist ethics has been influential in various fields, including philosophy, ethics, psychology, and social sciences. It has contributed to a broader understanding of ethics that takes into account the complexities of human experiences and challenges traditional ethical frameworks that may perpetuate bias and discrimination.

Carol Gilligan is a prominent feminist ethicist who is best known for her work on the ethics of care. Her ethical thinking, as outlined in her influential book "In a Different Voice" (1982), represents a departure from traditional ethical theories, particularly the male-centered moral development theories proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan's work focuses on the moral development of women and emphasizes the importance of relationships, empathy, and care in ethical decision-making. Here are some key aspects of Carol Gilligan's ethical thinking:

1. Ethics of Care: Gilligan argues that women tend to develop an "ethics of care" as opposed to the "ethics of justice" more commonly associated with traditional moral development theories. While the ethics of justice prioritizes principles, rights, and rules, the ethics of care emphasizes the importance of caring for and maintaining relationships. Gilligan contends that both perspectives are valid but that women's moral development often emphasizes care.
2. Moral Development: Gilligan suggests that women's moral development is characterized by a focus on responsibilities and relationships. Women tend to make ethical decisions based on the impact of their choices on others and are more attuned to the needs and feelings of those involved.
3. Stages of Moral Development: Gilligan proposes three stages of moral development in her theory:
   • Pre-conventional: Similar to Kohlberg's pre-conventional stage, this stage is characterized by a focus on self-interest and avoiding punishment.
   • Conventional: At this stage, individuals prioritize relationships and care for others over abstract principles or rules.
   • Post-conventional: In this stage, individuals integrate principles of justice with care and empathy, recognizing the complexity of ethical situations.
4. Gender Differences: Gilligan's work challenges the assumption that male-centered moral development theories represent a universal standard. She argues that women's ethical thinking is often marginalized and undervalued in society.
5. Contextual Morality: Gilligan's ethical thinking is contextual and situational, emphasizing that ethical decisions should take into account the specific circumstances and relationships involved. She rejects the notion of a single, universally applicable moral principle.
6. Critique of Gender Bias: Gilligan's work has been instrumental in highlighting and critiquing the gender bias present in traditional moral development research, which often focused primarily on the moral reasoning of men and boys.

Carol Gilligan's contributions to feminist ethics and the ethics of care have had a profound impact on the field of ethics and have challenged conventional views of morality. Her work has led to greater recognition of the value of empathy, care, and relationships in ethical decision-making, and it continues to influence discussions on gender, ethics, and moral development.

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Nel Noddings is a prominent philosopher and educator known for her work in the field of ethics, particularly her contributions to the ethics of care. Noddings' ethical thinking is deeply rooted in the philosophy of care and emphasizes the importance of nurturing relationships, empathy, and attentiveness in ethical decision-making. Here are some key aspects of Nel Noddings' ethical thinking:

1.      Ethics of Care: Noddings is a leading proponent of the ethics of care, which is a moral theory that places a central focus on caring relationships and the moral significance of caregiving. She argues that caring is a fundamental human value and that ethical decision-making should prioritize the well-being and needs of others.

2.      Caring as a Virtue: Noddings views caring as a moral virtue and a foundational concept in ethics. She believes that individuals should cultivate and practice caring virtues, such as compassion, empathy, and responsiveness, in their interactions with others.

3.      The Ethical Ideal: Noddings proposes an ethical ideal she calls the "ethics of care," in which individuals strive to develop a caring disposition and engage in caring relationships. This contrasts with traditional ethical theories that may prioritize principles, rules, or abstract notions of justice.

4.      Caring as a Response: Noddings emphasizes that caring is a responsive activity, where individuals recognize and respond to the needs and concerns of others. She argues that ethical decisions should be based on this responsiveness rather than rigid ethical principles.

5.      Critique of Impartiality: Noddings critiques the idea of impartiality in traditional ethics, suggesting that caring often requires partiality – that is, a preference for those with whom we have caring relationships. She contends that partiality is not necessarily a moral flaw but can be a moral virtue when it leads to caring and nurturing relationships.

6.      Educational Ethics: Noddings' work extends to the field of education, where she emphasizes the importance of caring relationships between educators and students. She believes that education should be grounded in caring interactions and that caring teachers can foster ethical development in students.

7.      Feminist Perspective: Noddings' ethics of care is often associated with feminist ethics, as it challenges traditional ethical theories that have often overlooked or marginalized the values associated with care, empathy, and relationships.

Nel Noddings' ethical thinking has had a significant impact on the fields of ethics, education, and feminist philosophy. Her emphasis on caring relationships and the moral value of empathy has influenced discussions on moral education, healthcare ethics, and interpersonal ethics. Noddings' work continues to be a valuable resource for those interested in exploring the ethics of care and the role of caring in ethical decision-making.

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Step-by-step guide on how someone might use feminist ethics in the process of making a moral judgment: Using feminist ethics to reach a moral judgment involves applying the principles and perspectives of feminist ethics to evaluate a particular ethical dilemma or situation.

1.      Recognize the Gendered Aspect: Start by acknowledging that gender and issues related to gender may play a significant role in the ethical situation or dilemma you are evaluating. Consider how power dynamics, stereotypes, and cultural norms related to gender might be influencing the situation.

2.      Empathize and Consider Relationships: Feminist ethics emphasizes the importance of empathy and caring relationships. Take time to empathize with the experiences and perspectives of all parties involved, especially those who may be marginalized or vulnerable due to their gender. Consider the impact of the situation on these individuals.

3.      Question Gender Stereotypes: Examine whether any gender stereotypes are at play in the ethical dilemma. Feminist ethics encourages critical reflection on how traditional gender roles and expectations may be shaping people's actions and perceptions.

4.      Evaluate Care and Responsiveness: Assess whether the actions or decisions in question prioritize care, attentiveness, and responsiveness to the needs and concerns of others, particularly those who are often marginalized or disadvantaged due to their gender.

5.      Consider Intersectionality: Recognize that individuals may have multiple intersecting identities (e.g., race, class, sexuality) that influence their experiences and vulnerabilities. Consider how these intersecting identities intersect with gender to shape the ethical dimensions of the situation.

6.      Critique Power Dynamics: Examine power dynamics within the situation, especially as they relate to gender. Consider whether there is an imbalance of power that is contributing to ethical concerns, and whether this power dynamic is influenced by gender-related factors.

7.      Engage in Dialogue: Engage in open and inclusive dialogue with all relevant stakeholders. Encourage diverse voices and perspectives to be heard, especially those of individuals whose experiences may have been marginalized or silenced in the past.

8.      Prioritize Justice and Equity: Feminist ethics often seeks to promote justice and equity, particularly concerning gender-based injustices. Consider how your moral judgment aligns with principles of fairness and equality, and whether it contributes to reducing gender-based disparities.

9.      Contextualize the Decision: Recognize that moral judgments are often context-dependent. Consider the specific circumstances, cultural context, and historical factors that may be relevant to the situation.

10.  Reflect on Care Ethics: If appropriate, consider the principles of care ethics as articulated by feminist ethicists like Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings. Assess whether the proposed moral judgment reflects caring and compassionate values.

11.  Make a Well-Informed Judgment: After considering these factors and perspectives, make a well-informed moral judgment that takes into account the principles and insights of feminist ethics. Be prepared to explain and justify your judgment based on these considerations.

Using feminist ethics to reach a moral judgment is a process that involves a thoughtful and nuanced examination of the ethical dimensions of a situation, with a particular focus on gender-related factors and a commitment to promoting care, empathy, and justice. It emphasizes the importance of inclusivity, empathy, and a critical examination of power dynamics in ethical decision-making.

RESOURCES:

VIEW:

Alternative Paradigms: Care Ethics and Feminine Ethics

Carol Gilligan on Women and Moral Development 6 min

Feminist Ethics of Care 25 min  

READ: Feminist Ethics  Rita Manning Just Caring

Journal HYPATHIA  : http://depts.washington.edu/hypatia/
 

INTRODUCTION TO FEMINIST ETHICS   by Dr Clare Palmer at https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/users/philosophy/awaymave/401/feminist.htm

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© Copyright Philip A. Pecorino 2002. All Rights reserved.

Web Surfer's Caveat: These are class notes, intended to comment on readings and amplify class discussion. They should be read as such. They are not intended for publication or general distribution.

Proceed to the next section of the chapter by clicking here> next section.

© Copyright Philip A. Pecorino 2002. All Rights reserved.

Web Surfer's Caveat: These are class notes, intended to comment on readings and amplify class discussion. They should be read as such. They are not intended for publication or general distribution.