Confucianism,
major system of thought in China, developed from the teachings of
Confucius and his disciples, and concerned with the principles of good
conduct, practical wisdom, and proper social relationships. Confucianism
has influenced the Chinese attitude toward life, set the patterns of
living and standards of social value, and provided the background for
Chinese political theories and institutions. It has spread from China to
Korea, Japan, and Vietnam and has aroused interest among Western scholars.
Although Confucianism became
the official ideology of the Chinese state, it has never existed as an
established religion with a church and priesthood. Chinese scholars
honored Confucius as a great teacher and sage but did not worship him as a
personal god. Nor did Confucius himself ever claim divinity. Unlike
Christian churches, the temples built to Confucius were not places in
which organized community groups gathered to worship, but public edifices
designed for annual ceremonies, especially on the philosopher's birthday.
Several attempts to deify Confucius and to proselyte Confucianism failed
because of the essentially secular nature of the philosophy.
The principles of Confucianism
are contained in the nine ancient Chinese works handed down by Confucius
and his followers, who lived in an age of great philosophic activity.
These writings can be divided into two groups: the Five Classics and the
Four Books.
The Wu Ching (Five
Classics), which originated before the time of Confucius, consist of the I
Ching (Book of Changes), Shu Ching (Book of History), Shih
Ching (Book of Poetry), Li Chi (Book of Rites), and Ch'un
Ch'iu (Spring and Autumn Annals). The I Ching is a manual of
divination probably compiled before the 11th century BC; its supplementary
philosophical portion, contained in a series of appendixes, may have been
written later by Confucius and his disciples. The Shu Ching is a
collection of ancient historical documents, and the Shih Ching, an
anthology of ancient poems. The Li Chi deals with the principles of
conduct, including those for public and private ceremonies; it was
destroyed in the 3rd century BC, but presumably much of its material was
preserved in a later compilation, the Record of Rites. The Ch'un
Ch'iu, the only work reputedly compiled by Confucius himself, is a
chronicle of major historical events in feudal China from the 8th century
BC to Confucius's death early in the 5th century BC.
The Shih Shu (Four
Books), compilations of the sayings of Confucius and Mencius and of
commentaries by followers on their teachings, are the Lun Yü
(Analects), a collection of maxims by Confucius that form the basis of his
moral and political philosophy; Ta Hsüeh (The Great Learning) and Chung
Yung (The Doctrine of the Mean), containing some of Confucius's
philosophical utterances arranged systematically with comments and
expositions by his disciples; and the Mencius (Book of Mencius),
containing the teachings of one of Confucius's great followers.
The keynote of Confucian
ethics is jen, variously translated as "love,"
"goodness," "humanity," and
"human-heartedness." Jen is a supreme virtue representing
human qualities at their best. In human relations, construed as those
between one person and another, jen is manifested in chung,
or faithfulness to oneself and others, and shu, or altruism, best
expressed in the Confucian golden rule, "Do not do to others what you
do not want done to yourself." Other important Confucian virtues
include righteousness, propriety, integrity, and filial piety. One who
possesses all these virtues becomes a chün-tzu (perfect
gentleman). Politically, Confucius advocated a paternalistic government in
which the sovereign is benevolent and honorable and the subjects are
respectful and obedient. The ruler should cultivate moral perfection in
order to set a good example to the people. In education Confucius upheld
the theory, remarkable for the feudal period in which he lived, that
"in education, there is no class distinction."
Confucian Schools of
Thought
After the death of Confucius
two major schools of Confucian thought emerged: one was represented by
Mencius, the other by Hsün-tzu (Hsün K'uang, 300?-235? BC). Mencius
continued the ethical teachings of Confucius by stressing the innate
goodness of human nature. He believed, however, that original human
goodness can become depraved through one's own destructive effort or
through contact with an evil environment. The problem of moral cultivation
is therefore to preserve or at least to restore the goodness that is one's
birthright. In political thought, Mencius is sometimes considered one of
the early advocates of democracy, for he advanced the idea of the people's
supremacy in the state.
In opposition to Mencius, Hsün-tzu
contended that a person is born with an evil nature but that it can be
regenerated through moral education. He believed that desires should be
guided and restrained by the rules of propriety and that character should
be molded by an orderly observance of rites and by the practice of music.
This code serves as a powerful influence on character by properly
directing emotions and by providing inner harmony. Hsün-tzu was the main
exponent of ritualism in Confucianism.
After a brief period of
eclipse in the 3rd century BC, Confucianism was revived during the Han
dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). The Confucian works, copies of which had been
destroyed in the preceding period, were restored to favor, canonized, and
taught by learned scholars in national academies. The works also formed
the basis of later civil service examinations; candidates for responsible
government positions received their appointments on the strength of their
knowledge of classic literature. As a result, Confucianism secured a firm
hold on Chinese intellectual and political life.
The success of Han
Confucianism was attributable to Tung Chung-shu, who first recommended a
system of education built upon the teachings of Confucius. Tung Chung-shu
believed in a close correspondence between human beings and nature; thus a
person's deeds, especially those of the sovereign, are often responsible
for unusual phenomena in nature. Because of the sovereign's authority, he
or she is to blame for such phenomena as fire, flood, earthquake, and
eclipse. Because these ill omens can descend on earth as a warning to
humanity that all is not well in this world, the fear of heavenly
punishment proves useful as a curb to the monarch's absolute power.
In the political chaos that
followed the fall of the Han dynasty, Confucianism was overshadowed by the
rival philosophies of Taoism and Buddhism, and the philosophy suffered a
temporary setback. Nevertheless, the Confucian Classics continued to be
the chief source of learning for scholars, and with the restoration of
peace and prosperity in the Tang dynasty (618-907), the spread of
Confucianism was encouraged. The monopoly of learning by Confucian
scholars once again ensured them the highest bureaucratic positions.
Confucianism returned as an orthodox state teaching.
Neo-Confucianism
The intellectual activities of
the Song (Sung) dynasty (960-1279) gave rise to a new system of Confucian
thought based on a mixture of Buddhist and Taoist elements; the new school
of Confucianism was known as Neo-Confucianism. The scholars who evolved
this intellectual system were themselves well versed in the other two
philosophies. Although primarily teachers of ethics, they were also
interested in the theories of the universe and the origin of human nature.
Neo-Confucianism branched out
into two schools of philosophy. The foremost exponent of one school was
Chu Hsi, an eminent thinker second only to Confucius and Mencius in
prestige, who established a new philosophical foundation for the teachings
of Confucianism by organizing scholarly opinion into a cohesive system.
According to the Neo-Confucianist system Chu Hsi represented, all objects
in nature are composed of two inherent forces: li, an immaterial
universal principle or law; and ch'i, the substance of which all
material things are made. Whereas ch'i may change and dissolve, li,
the underlying law of the myriad things, remains constant and
indestructible. Chu Hsi further identifies the li in humankind with
human nature, which is essentially the same for all people. The phenomenon
of particular differences can be attributed to the varying proportions and
densities of the ch'i found among individuals. Thus, those who
receive a ch'i that is turbid will find their original nature
obscured and should cleanse their nature to restore its purity. Purity can
be achieved by extending one's knowledge of the li in each
individual object. When, after much sustained effort, one has investigated
and comprehended the universal li or natural law inherent in all
animate and inanimate objects, one becomes a sage.
Opposed to the li (law)
school is the hsin (mind) school of Neo-Confucianism. The chief
exponent of the hsin school was Wang Yang-ming, who taught the
unity of knowledge and practice. His major proposition was that
"apart from the mind, neither law nor object" exists. In the
mind, he asserted, are embodied all the laws of nature, and nothing exists
without the mind. One's supreme effort should be to develop "the
intuitive knowledge" of the mind, not through the study or
investigation of natural law, but through intense thought and calm
meditation.
During the Qing (Ch’ing)
dynasty (1644-1911) there was a strong reaction to both the li and hsin
schools of Neo-Confucian thought. Qing scholars advocated a return to the
earlier and supposedly more authentic Confucianism of the Han period, when
it was still unadulterated by Buddhist and Taoist ideas. They developed
textual criticism of the Confucian Classics based on scientific
methodology, using philology, history, and archaeology to reinforce their
scholarship. In addition, scholars such as Tai Chen introduced an
empiricist point of view into Confucian philosophy.
Toward the end of the 19th
century the reaction against Neo-Confucian metaphysics took a different
turn. Instead of confining themselves to textual studies, Confucian
scholars took an active interest in politics and formulated reform
programs based on Confucian doctrine. K'ang Yu-wei, a leader of the
Confucian reform movement, made an attempt to exalt the philosophy as a
national religion. Because of foreign threats to China and the urgent
demand for drastic political measures, the reform movements failed; in the
intellectual confusion that followed the Chinese revolution of 1911,
Confucianism was branded as decadent and reactionary. With the collapse of
the monarchy and the traditional family structure, from which much of its
strength and support was derived, Confucianism lost its hold on the
nation. In the past, it often had managed to weather adversities and to
emerge with renewed vigor, but during this period of unprecedented social
upheavals it lost its previous ability to adapt to changing circumstances.
In the view of some scholars,
Confucius will be revered in the future as China's greatest teacher;
Confucian classics will be studied, and Confucian virtues, embodied for
countless generations in the familiar sayings and common-sense wisdom of
the Chinese people, will remain the cornerstone of ethics. It is doubtful,
however, that Confucianism ever again will play the dominant role in
Chinese political life and institutions that it did in past centuries.
The Chinese Communist victory
of 1949 underlined the uncertain future of Confucianism. Many
Confucian-based traditions were put aside. The family system, for example,
much revered in the past as a central Confucian institution, was
deemphasized. Few Confucian classics were published, and official
campaigns against Confucianism were organized in the late 1960s and early
'70s.